Humanities Homework Help

1. Review The Mapping Note Taking

2. Then read “Ethics”

3. Complete The “Mapping Note-taking” method on “Ethics” and submit

* See the attached The “Mapping Note-taking” method I have provided. Please use this template

E-Lecture: Ethics: Patterns of Moral Action

Religious ethics are different from philosophical or secular morality in that the former involves a complex of
moral dispositions, principles, and practices based dominantly, on the acceptance of a sacred authority. This
authority may be located in sacred text, cosmic law, in the teachings of a charismatic leader or in a combination
of these.

A religious person’s sense of right action is shaped by and conforms to a normative sacred authority. Ethical
obligations may be individually or communally focused within religious people.
There is a difference between ethics of virtue and ethics of duty. An ethics of virtue (of what is morally ideal)
was the main concern in Greek, early Christian, and Confucianism in China. After the Enlightenment in the
West, an ethics of duty or obligation (what ought to be done) has dominated ethical reflection.
An ethics of duty is concerned with how to establish general principles that can guide people when they are
faced with choices on how to act. It is concerned with particular rules that can guide people.
An ethics of virtue is not mainly concerned with establishing general rules by which to guide moral
action. Instead, it looks to emulate the kind of person who is considered good- an ideal moral character. The
judgement of one’s actions has less to do with pre-set rules and more to do with motives. The moral guide is
“be this” whereas in an ethics of duty it is “do this.”
Most religious traditions have focused attention on cardinal virtues, which often reflect the characteristics of a
religious founder or sage or saint. For example, Jesus in Christianity, Mohammad in Islam, and the Bodhisattva
in Mahayana Buddhism.

The Sources and Norms of Moral Authority
Cosmic or Natural Law
Natural law theory states that human moral action is grounded in the essential structure of reality itself. In other
words, “true law is right reason in agreement with nature.”
In Confucianism, there is Cosmic Law, which underlies and directs the natural world and the law of the moral
and social order. Review the section on Confucianism and Taoism on page 278-279.
Natural Law in Roman Catholicism states that “natural law is nothing other than the participation of eternal law
in rational creatures.” Review Catholic natural law on page 280-281.

Charismatic Leaders“Charisma” derives from the Greek “Charis”, and it suggests the possession of a spiritual gift with special,
extraordinary, endowments. Many of the great founders of religions have been recognized as charismatic
leaders with spiritual powers. It is usually seen as revolutionary, and bringing on a radically new moral vision,
one that calls for a break with the established order. The charismatic leader is seen as a a special instrument of
the Divine or the Ultimate and followers feel a duty to follow the leader’s moral summons at all costs.
Max Weber suggests that there are two kinds of charismatic religious leaders. First, is the “exemplary” which is
found mostly in East Asia and India. Buddha is a good example of the “exemplary charismatic
leader.” Second, is the “ethical prophet” who proclaims the command of God and is usually found in religions
that originate in the Near East. Muhammad is a good example of an “ethical prophet.”
Mohandas K. Gandhi is a twentieth century Indian holy man who is an “exemplary” leader. Review his story
on page 282-285.
Amos, a Hebrew prophet, is an example of an ethical prophet. Review his story on page 286-288.

An Ethics of Divine Command
Judaism, Islam and Christianity all receive their sources and norms of moral obligation from commands or
instructions that are revealed through a divine intermediary or messenger and then have been set down in sacred
scripture. Within these three monotheistic traditions, the standards of right and wrong are so because it is
commanded or forbidden by God.
What makes an action right is that God commanded it. God’s goodness is presupposed. One can trust that
God’s command is righteous.

Jewish Law and Ethics:
In Israel, law and morality are joined, rooted in the command of Yahweh as the command is set in the Books of
Moses. A violation of law is both a sin and an offense against civil society.
Israelites spoke of God’s law as “commandment” or “mitzvah” and as “instruction” or “torah”. Eventually the
torah was canonized in the Hebrew Bible. Oral law grew alongside the written law. Eventually the oral law
took on an authority independent of the written Torah. Ethics in Judaism has always been linked to this oral
law, or rabbinic commentary known as Talmudic Judaism. This tradition of rabbinic study and commentary on
the Mosaic law are considered to be as binding as the written law.
In the Jewish community today, divine commandments are interpreted ethically and made to apply in very
different historical settings. Judaism does not speak with one voice, as Jews confront “modernity” they have
different views on contemporary ethical issues such as homosexuality, abortion, etc.
For example, Reform Judaism, which began in the 19th century, holds the Talmudic tradition of rabbinic
commentary in reverent regard but doesn’t consider it to be normative. Instead, it looks at the ethical teachings
of the prophetic literature for the moral “essence” and norms of Judaism.
In contrast, Orthodox Judaism, looks for ethical answers in a strict appeal to citations in the Hebrew Bible, the
Talmud, and the Rabbinic commentaries. Orthodox Judaism tends to be more conservative and Reform
Judaism tends to be less conservative on issues such as abortion.

Islamic Law and Ethics:
For Muslims, there is little distinction between what is legal, moral, ethical and religious. The ethical
community within Islam is also based upon an ethics of divine command.
Shari’a, the Arabic name for Divine Law, shows Muslims the “right path.” Humans can only have insight or
fiqh into the Divine Law. Fiqh also refers to Islamic legal rules that have been established by Islamic jurists
through pious scholarship.
There are different systems of fiqh. In Sunni Islam, jurists believe that no ruling can be infallible and all rules
proposed by qualified jurists are considered equally valid. A distinction was drawn between God’s law and fiqh
and difference is accepted.
The Qur’an contains references to God’s law but these are often general and need interpretation. Over time,
Sunni jurisprudence established four sources of the shari’a of Divine Law: the Qur’an (divine revelation given to
Muhammad), Sunna (the detailed traditions or “customs” of the Prophet, which were derived from his words
and deeds and collected and recorded after his death), The Qur’an and the Sunna are both considered to be
divinely inspired and infallible. The third source of shari’a is analogical deduction, because this type of
reasoning was needed to interpret specific rules and application. The clerics or “ulama” who make legal and
ethical interpretations represent the “Consensus of the Community.” Ijma, or “consensus” is the fourth source,
since the majority must be right in a community guided by God.
The shari’a or Divine Law is law and moral obligation. Moral actions are classified according to a fivefold
scheme:
1. actions mandatory on believers
2. actions recommended or desirable for believers
3. actions neutral or indifferent
4. actions objectionable or blame-worthy, but not forbidden
5. actions prohibited
This scheme helps devout Muslims determine the “right way to the water” or the course that will ensure their
entry into Paradise on the Day of Judgment.
During the third Islamic century (around 900 C.E.) several legal schools emerged and there are four dominant
ones. Each school is associated with a particular teacher. The first three schools accept the legal rulings of the
other schools but the Hanbali school is a fundamentalist reaction against the “innovations” of the other schools
and is less tolerant toward them.
In Shi’i Islam, the Imam or spiritual heads of the community, are considered as infallible as the Prophet
Muhammad. Thus, there is not as much flexibility because they have Imams to guide them, who are considered
infallible.

The Duty of Jihad
The Muslim’s duty of jihad is about the spread of belief in Allah and of Islam throughout the world. It doesn’t
necessarily imply warfare, although it has become associated with violence and aggression in the minds of
Western non-Muslims. While there is a duty of jihad by the sword, according to some Muslim jurists, this is
based upon rules and guidelines that vary depending upon the legal school that the jurist is associated with.
Since the 18th century the duty and doctrines of jihad have often dominated Muslim discussion. Ethical
conflicts between Muslim traditionalists and modernists are not unlike the ethical differences one finds in
Judaism (Orthodox and Reform) and Christianity (conservative and liberal).